architecture and me

The voyage for me to the world of architecture has been almost over. There were ups and many downs, there were sorrows and many joys. Each path led to the new experience and encounter with new perspective of life. Things I’ve never observed or experienced were now known to me and sufficiently well known of course. Places I use to visit become the places I now observe, places I used to hang out are now the places of my research. Every single thing changed their perspective and way they use to be in my view.

Gathering the experiences my memories still lingers to the first day when I entered entirely a whole and new community of architecture. New friends, new style of studying and totally new environment. Big desks, long scale and a different infatuation with fevicol well that must be the very beginning to this world.

Time sweep by so were the pattern. Promotion from the drafting to the computer drawing was the major improvement. Years pass by many case studies, many projects and the degree of satisfaction after each submission. And comes the exam time, time to movie, time to party and time for all cool stuffs waiting till the end of each semester.

All the precious memories to treasure forever.

CASE STUDY

Introduction

A case study is one of several ways of doing research whether it is social science related or even socially related. It is an intensive study of a single group, incident, or community. Other ways include experiments, surveys, or analysis of archival information .

Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol to examine limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses .

Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. Case study research means single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies should not be confused with qualitative research and they can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Single-subject research provides the statistical framework for making inferences from quantitative case-study data.This is also supported and well-formulated in (Lamnek, 2005): "The case study is a research approach, situated between concrete data taking techniques and methodologic paradigms."

History of the case study

As a distinct approach to research, use of the case study originated only in the early 20th century. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the phrase case study or case-study back as far as 1934, influenced by the much older concept of a case history in medicine.

The use of case studies for the creation of new theory in social sciences has been further developed by the sociologists Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss who presented their research method, Grounded theory, in 1967.

The popularity of case studies in testing hypotheses has developed only in recent decades. One of the areas in which case studies have been gaining popularity is education and in particular educational evaluation.

Case studies have also been used as a teaching method and as part of professional development, especially in business and legal education. The problem-based learning (PBL) movement is such an example. When used in (non-business) education and professional development, case studies are often referred to as critical incidents.

Case selection

Yin (2005) suggested that researchers should decide whether to do single-case or multiple-case studies and chose to keep the case holistic or have embedded sub-cases. This two-by-two combination can produce four basic designs for case studies.

When selecting a case for a case study, researchers often use information-oriented sampling , as opposed to random sampling . This is because an average case is often not the richest in information. Extreme or atypical cases reveal more information because they activate more basic mechanisms and more actors in the situation studied. In addition, from both an understanding-oriented and an action-oriented perspective, it is often more important to clarify the deeper causes behind a given problem and its consequences than to describe the symptoms of the problem and how frequently they occur. Random samples emphasizing representativeness will seldom be able to produce this kind of insight; it is more appropriate to select some few cases chosen for their validity.

Three types of information-oriented cases may be distinguished:

1. Extreme or deviant cases
2. Critical cases
3. Paradigmatic cases.

Generalizing from case studies

The case study is effective for generalizing using the type of test that Karl Popper called falsification, which forms part of critical reflexivity . Falsification is one of the most rigorous tests to which a scientific proposition can be subjected: if just one observation does not fit with the proposition it is considered not valid generally and must therefore be either revised or rejected. Popper himself used the now famous example of, "All swans are white," and proposed that just one observation of a single black swan would falsify this proposition and in this way have general significance and stimulate further investigations and theory-building.

Assumptions

1. Cases selected based on dimensions of a theory (pattern-matching) or on diversity on a dependent phenomenon (explanation-building).

2. No generalization to a population beyond cases similar to those studied.

3. Conclusions should be phrased in terms of model elimination, not model validation. Numerous alternative theories may be consistent with data gathered from a case study.

4. Case study approaches have difficulty in terms of evaluation of low-probability causal paths in a model as any given case selected for study may fail to display such a path, even when it exists in the larger population of potential cases.

litreature review in architecture

Introduction

A literature review is a piece of discursive prose, that not only summarize the published information in a particular subject area accredited scholars and researchers within a certain time period but has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant.

Literature review hence should have sections that present themes or identify trends, including relevant theory. Its objective is not to list all the material published, but to synthesize and evaluate it according to the guiding concept of your thesis or research question.

If you are writing an annotated bibliography, you may need to summarize each item briefly, but should still follow through themes and concepts and do some critical assessment of material. Use an overall introduction and conclusion to state the scope of your coverage and to formulate the question, problem, or concept your chosen material illuminates. Usually you will have the option of grouping items into sections—this helps you indicate comparisons and relationships. You may be able to write a paragraph or so to introduce the focus of each section

Besides enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a literature review lets you gain and demonstrate skills in two areas

1. information seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using manual or computerized methods, to identify a set of useful articles and books
2. Critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to identify unbiased and valid studies.

Objective of literature review:

A literature review must do these things

1. be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are developing
2. synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
3. identify areas of controversy in the literature
4. formulate questions that need further research

Difference between literature review and academic research paper

While the main focus of an academic research paper is to support your own argument, the focus of a literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others. The academic research paper also covers a range of sources, but it is usually a select number of sources, because the emphasis is on the argument. Likewise, a literature review can also have an "argument," but it is not as important as covering a number of sources. In short, an academic research paper and a literature review contain some of the same elements. In fact, many academic research papers will contain a literature review section. But it is the aspect of the study (the argument or the sources) that is emphasized that determines what type of document it is.

Importance of literature review

Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research paper's investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to most research papers.

Prerequisite for writing the literature review

Clarify

If your assignment is not very specific, seek clarification from your instructor:

• Roughly how many sources should you include?
• What types of sources (books, journal articles, websites)?
• Should you summarize, synthesize, or critique your sources by discussing a common theme or issue?
• Should you evaluate your sources?
• Should you provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history?

Find models

Look for other literature reviews in your area of interest or in the discipline and read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or ways to organize your final review. You can simply put the word "review" in your search engine along with your other topic terms to find articles of this type on the Internet or in an electronic database. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read are also excellent entry points into your own research.

Narrow your topic

There are hundreds or even thousands of articles and books on most areas of study. The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to get a good survey of the material. Your instructor will probably not expect you to read everything that's out there on the topic, but you'll make your job easier if you first limit your scope.

Consider whether your sources are current

Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. In the sciences, for instance, treatments for medical problems are constantly changing according to the latest studies. Information even two years old could be obsolete. However, if you are writing a review in the humanities, history, or social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be what is needed, because what is important is how perspectives have changed through the years or within a certain time period. Try sorting through some other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to consider what is "hot" and what is not.

Strategies for writing the literature review

Find a focus

A literature review must be organized around a central idea that focuses on the themes or issues and the solution they commonly directs and not the sources themselves as an annotated bibliography would be organized.

Construct a working thesis statement

Then use the focus you've found to construct a thesis statement that not necessarily argue for a position or an opinion; rather it will argue for a particular perspective on the material..

Consider organization

Develop an organization for your review at both a global and local level including important topics,subtopics,etc in proper order.

Cover the basic categories

Just like most academic papers, literature reviews also must contain at least three basic elements: an introduction or background information section; the body of the review containing the discussion of sources; and, finally, a conclusion and/or recommendations section to end the paper.

Introduction: Gives a quick idea of the topic of the literature review, such as the central theme or organizational pattern.

Body: Contains your discussion of sources and is organized either chronologically, thematically, or methodologically.

Conclusions/Recommendations: Discuss what you have drawn from reviewing literature so far. Where might the discussion proceed?

Organizing the body

Once you have the basic categories in place, then you must consider how you will present the sources themselves within the body of your paper. Create an organizational method to focus this section even further.There are three typical ways of organizing the sources into a review:

1. Chronological

By publication: Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. 

By trend: A better way to organize the above sources chronologically is to examine the sources under another trend.

2. Thematic:

Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. But more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. The only difference here between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the development of the harpoon or the harpoon technology.

3.      Methodological :

A methodological approach differs from the two above in that the focusing factor usually does not have to do with the content of the material. Instead, it focuses on the "methods" of the researcher or writer. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.

Once you've decided on the organizational method for the body of the review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out. They should arise out of your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue.

Sometimes, few other sections  might be considered such as:

Current Situation: Information necessary to understand the topic or focus of the literature review.

History: The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.

Methods and/or Standards: The criteria you used to select the sources in your literature review or the way in which you present your information. For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed articles and journals.

Questions for Further Research: What questions about the field has the review sparked? How will you further your research as a result of the review?

Begin composing

Once you've settled on a general pattern of organization, you're ready to write each section. There are a few guidelines you should follow during the writing stage as well.

Use evidence: Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence to show that what you are saying is valid.

Be selective: Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the review's focus, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological.

Use quotes sparingly: literature review does not allow for in-depth discussion or detailed quotes from the text but some short quotes here and there are okay, though, if you want to emphasize a point, or if what the author said just cannot be rewritten in your own words.

Summarize and synthesize: Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well as throughout the review.

Keep your own voice: While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice (the writer's) should remain front and center.

Use caution when paraphrasing: When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words.

Revise, revise, revise : once the draft is in hand revise it again and again so as to make sure that you have presented your information in the most concise manner possible. Be sure to use terminology familiar to your audience; get rid of unnecessary jargon or slang. Finally, double check that you've documented your sources and formatted the review appropriately for your discipline.

Climate and Architecture

Since the beginning of time, man has been affected by climate and its influence

over the earth. The first humans built shelters and lived in caves to protect themselves

from the weather elements. However, the first documentation of architectural design

with climate interests in mind dates back to fourth century B.C. in Greece. The

philosopher Vitruvius is quoted as saying, “We must at the outset take note of the

countries and climates in which buildings are built (Oktay).” In Rome, architects made

note of the reduction of temperature created by the huge stonewalls and their shadows.

The walls were made of stuccoed brick and were typically twelve to twenty feet wide

which allowed for an extended area to be captured in the shadows of the walls keeping

the city cool during the midday hours (Oktay). The stuccoed walls are an example of

climate-responsive architecture, or architecture that is constructed and built with designs

that make use of the surrounding climate and its natural effects. With the help of new

climate technology, many developing countries, such as Algeria, are making use of

climate-responsive architecture and its benefits in helping to keep humans comfortable

(Bensalem). The impact in Algeria is strong because with the country’s struggling

economy and varying climate zones, it is a huge step to be able to use the country’s

natural environment as a building tool instead of expensive technology. Climateresponsive

architecture takes advantage of free energy in the form of heat and light. Each

region of the world employs its own techniques and designs in its buildings that are best

suited to that particular region and that encompass the region’s cultural patterns. This is

known more commonly as vernacular architecture, or “forms which grow out of the

practical needs of the inhabitants of a place and the constraints of the site and climate

(Oktay).” Vernacular architecture varies for regions of hot climate and regions of cold

climate. Many of the same techniques are employed, but it is the way they are used in

each respective climate that makes them unique.

drug rehab in nepal

Architecture is about creating a space and making it lively for a suitable purpose. Architecture thus has a purpose. A building conveys various impacts and effects to its habitat. Residential building creates a homely environment for living but the same building may not create the same environment for the treatment purpose. Each building has its meaning and its particular function. From the safety point of view also this point is highly deliberated. Linking the case of Nepal most of the rehabs ongoing in Nepal are converted from the residential buildings. It thus carries the huge default. The spaces which were supposed to bring a psychological impact upon the treatment is just an adjusted space.
In Nepal, initially subjects with drug dependence were treated in the police custody with short-term interim measures but drug addiction need cure not the punishment. Also there are limited numbers of rehabs in Nepal but the number of drug addicts has been rapidly increasing. This seeks the need of admittance of more proper effective rehabilitation centers.
There is no question that Nepal is a male dominated country. The position of women in the society is not satisfactory. Due the improvement of education system this matter doesn’t even seems like a problem but the condition is worst in the rural areas.  The victim of drug is not always a man. Various female addicts can be found in our society but due to the male dominating nature, most of the rehabilitation centers in Nepal admit only male patients.
Man is a social animal. He was born in a society, he lives in a society and eventually dies in a society. With the addiction the drug user may forget the society but they need the support of the society after the treatment because it is the place where they belong. It is hard for the society to accept the social criminal with same respect as the saying goes “once a thief always a thief”. Hence rehabilitation centers should also be able to provide skills and trainings which will be fruitful for the society so that they can accept them without any hesitations.
Thus for creating an overall sound and perfect rehabilitation center which is not just a compromise of space but a creation of space which bring a radical psychological change helping in the improvement of the physical health as well as the mental state so that they could return to the society gaining some knowledge and life withstanding skills, both for male and female, a drug rehabilitation center is required.

HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY AND ARCHITECTURE

Human psychology

Human psychology is the science of studying human nature and behavior. The field of psychology includes both mind and body. Basically it is the impact on human mind and the result of which is seen in human body.  Every single individual in this universe is entirely different from one another and so is their behavior.

Architecture

Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and constructing form, space and ambience that reflects technical, social, and aesthical considerations. Moreover architecture is an art of creating a space be it a closed or open space.

Sensation and perception

In order to understand our relationship with space, we first need to explore how we become aware of it. Primarily of course we see it, since it is largely evident to us visually. The processing of visual sensations

into perceptions of the world around us involves a complex interaction of the eye and brain. Our own characteristics are such that our visual sensations largely dominate our perceptions, since over two-thirds of the nerve fibres that enter our central nervous system are from the eyes!

Because of this we have come to live in a very visually dominated culture, and it is easy to forget that space is also perceived through the sensations of sound, smell and even touch. Perception is actually more than just sensation. Perception is an active process through which we

make sense of the world around us. To do this of course we rely upon sensation, but we normally integrate the experience of all our senses without conscious analysis. It is only when something is unusual or out of place that we notice the different sensations, our differential attention

to them, and any incongruities.

Human psychology and architecture

Human psychology is directly related with architecture. Appropriate use of various architectural components has the capacity of enlightening the atmosphere whereas inappropriate use does the opposite. The building forms, the functions incorporated in it, colors, negative and positive spaces in and around it may be the few points but architecture is directly attached with human psychology from conscious to subconscious level.

Some of the components of architecture which affects human psychology are:

·         Building form

·         Positive and negative spaces

·         Colors

·         Open spaces

·         Openings

·         Lighting

·         Acoustics

·         Sound construction

·         Green techniques

·         Landscapes

STUPA ARCHITECTURE IN NEPAL

The stupas in fact should be the entombment of the corporeal relics of Buddha. The stupas usually consist of a square or circular base, a drum like hemispherical body and a square or a rectangular enclosure over the center of the hemisphere, with a tapering umbrella consisting originally of 3 and later of 13 concentric rings crowned finally by a finial called "gajura".

Stupas are normally of three kinds on the basis of their purpose. They are i.)Saririka (embodying the mortal remains such as bones), ii.)Paribhogika (containing objects used by the Buddha or the Bodisattvas), and iii.)Uddesika (dedicated to buddha). It is the Uddesika stupas that are called chaityas in Nepal in common language.

Its form is circular. The hemisphere acts as a garbagriha. The dome of chaitya covers the peak of the hill and forms a platform at the level of 1403.26m. On the peak rests the central shaft or, wodden pillar (yasti) of the chaitya. 31meters below the platform, a dome is placed representing Bhairava as the gurdian god of the hill at the very point upto which kalihrada, the pre-historic lake is set to have had its level. The central shaft of the chaitya represents Indra, the axis of the world and the dome represents the primordial hillock, floating on the primordial ocean. Here the symbolism of the hillock is repeated. It is represented by the hill as it sticks out of the lake Kalihrada as well as by the dome of the building.

On the top of hemisphere, hermika must be cube. But here it is elongated because of flattering. The hermika is the replication of gavaska window. Instead of window, two eyes with the symbol of Nepali letter 1. The eye and window has the similar meaning as looking out. The symbol of one means the oneness, unity of Nepalese people. Thus from this part the fifth Buddha Vairochana is radiating energy through the eye. The central spire is lengthened by an array of concentric discs made of gilded copper. It is called Churamani or conical gift rings. It symbolizes the 13 steps of enlightenment. On the uppermost disc of the square, there is a strong wood and gilt work supporting richly carved canopy. In the center of the framework the upper end of the wooden chhatra or linga around which the spire is constructed, is seen. On the top of the spire, there is an inverted bell shaped pinnacle. This pinnacle is crowned by a second small chattra be that rest upon a tripod, which is formed by three long gilded supports projecting from the upper edges of the lower but larger canopy.

The vajrayana concept started in the valley in the seventh century resulting the five thoughts around the hemisphere. The notion of five tathaghts, Jinas or "Dhyani Buddha" named Vairochaya, Akshobhaya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha (Amitylas) and Amogasidhi are the fundamental of vajranya practices. These are assumed as the authors of the five world as three past, the present and the future.

Four tathaghats are placed in niches facing the cardinal direction at an angle 12  from North. Each may be recognized by its particular color, symbol, mudra, and vanane and each has its own concert. Aksobhaya is in Bhumisparsh mudra touching the ground. His vehicle is depicted below the niche. The fifth tathgata, Vairocana is regarded as the eldest and Vairocana is a lord of perfection. This image was placed in 1418. As the old image was layed and its gold coating got rubbed out. This deity should have been represented in the middle of dome shaped structure but in the stupa of Swayambhunath, he is given a place of greater honor because he is stationed at the right hand side of Aksobhaya, the lord of east. He is shown in attitude of preaching. His vehicle is the lion. Vajradateshwari the concert of vairochana is represented sitting on her husband's right mamaki. The female concert of Ratnasambhava, the lord of the south is depicted in a boon giving attitude of mounting in a horse. In another small shrine, there is a pandara, the female concert of Amitabha. On the west side, Amitabha, the lord of the west is regressed in the position of meditation. This is mounted on a vehicle peacock. Just beside the shrine of Amitabha is the shrine of Tara, the female concert of Amogasidshi who is situated by her side in small shrine. Amogasiddhi, the lord of north is depicted in a boon giving a protective attitude. His vehicle is Garuda.

The dome of the stupa appears as almost hemispherical mass with the external coating of Bajra, a primitive mortar constituted by lime pulverized brick and mud pulse. The stone skeleton of the chapels are clothen by gilt plates with sculpturally finished toranas and golden gajur on the top. Each of these chapel house mediating Buddha, which are of cuprous origin with external framework of gold. There is great Hindu-Buddhist architectural harmony since very much ancient time, which can be seen on the swayambhu area also. The whole complex comprises many other buildings, temples, bihars etc.

Bricks in Nepalese Architecture

Architecture best dictated by material can be best exemplified in Nepalese context, where the alluvial soil deposits have resulted in a classic development of brick architecture.  Brick has become spirit of Nepalese architecture since Kirat period. The extensive use of brick in Nepalese context might be the availability of good soil, more flexibility in casting of desired shape and size in easy way and of course the workability due to its size.

            Bricks in Nepalese Architecture have been used as structural and decorative purpose and for construction of private dwellings, tired temples, shikhara, temple, stupas, water conduits, wells, paving, for plinth etc.

            Fast development of bricks in Nepalese architecture is renowned for its advanced structural, ornamental and structural works. This was made possible by good workmanship, specialization in brick making needs of different types of shaped and sized and plentiful availability of raw material.

            The architecture of brick proceeded that of stone in Nepal which have been observed from the archeological foundation unearthed at Satya Narayan site of Hadigaun and that of Lumbini of 2050 B.C and so on. Archeological finds proof beyond doubts that bricks based architecture was flourishing in various parts of Nepal more than 500 years before the Guptas. Primarily bricks are sun-baked or kiln-fired. When the bricks are sun dried and when the house itself stands, weathered, unpainted the appearance of wall is very dull so that they appear to have no aesthetic value, only functional necessity. But when walls are constructed of baked bricks they bring up gleaming solidarity to the form of temple palace and home.

            Baked bricks, which are strong and readily available, are used in pavements of streets that pass by or border upon the temples and courtyards of temples. Baked bricks, which are strong and readily available, are generally found to be more satisfactory as pavement than are stone slabs for the latter become very slippery when wet. The bricks that are used for paving such areas are usually small (9”x9”) and square with some variations- covering a finer quality belong liked for interior used – the same material are employed to pave the floor of inner shrine are used in courtyard. Early temples reveal the use of telia or chikappa for internal flooring.

            Interlocking bricks of later Malla period is a self-sealing pavement bricks (40.5cm x 27.7 cm x 7 cm), which can be seen beside a well near Nagpokhari of Naksal. Bricks with vertical grooves were also used in pavements.

            Bricks are used in foundations also. Foundation of a structure is usually shallow. The basic foundation consist of a few layers of natural stone (large pebbles of broken stone) ; this is followed by brickwork which gradually attains wall thickness of ground floor and which continues into the superstructure without damp-proof of layer. It is said that temples have no foundation. It is the plinth (incase of temples) which actually acts as a foundation. A plinth infront of houses and palaces are not structural but acts as a protection against damp penetration and to give lifting appearance above road level. In similar way stepped plinth of temple not only serve as protection against damp penetration but also for aggrandizement of temples.

            The plinth of the temple is of symbolic importance not only for its geometric shape that relates to total temple plan but for its bricks that are moulded into forms both decorative and meaningful ornamental bricks have been found in the ruin of early Buddhist monument in Terai including examples of patterns as part of the plinth of the temple of Mayadevi at Lumbini and Lotus bearing brick that cover a relic casket in the stupa/ bihar construction at Sagarwa. Recent finds of bricks are of intended check board design ( in Patan Museum). Their pattern reflects those of plinth decoration. The base of shrine of Mayadeva at Pachali as unusual construction with 3 bricks. Shikhara is especially elaborated with several rows of moulded bricks on each of its foundation. Bricks walls are usually perform the structural function.

Walls are generally thick (up to 70 cm) but the walls of some temples and certain palace building tends to be much thicker often up to 2m. Construction of wall is done in three leafing – the outer, middle and inner. This kind of walling was done to save cost for climatic suitability. Normally variation of temperature (between maximum and minimum is 24 C winter and 12 C in summer) so this variation is very uncomfortable and to cope with this problem, thick wall was done. Thick walls means heat takes long time (8 to 12 hrs) to reach outer to inner side i.e. time lag is 10 hours average. So the building becomes cold in summer and hot in winter. This type of treatment of bricks certainly comfort desired.

            Outer bricks are of many types and names. Simple ba appa, ma appa, appa are rectangular and dachi appa is conical bricks. Society with naming of bricks of many kinds refers the elaborate society. Dachi appa are used in such a way that mortar cannot be seen from outside. This was for the prevention of moisture / dampness/ rain. That is virtually used mortar for this purpose since it acts as a black cotton soil.

            Many types of bricks are used depending upon financial standing and importance of the building. Some name of bricks used for various purposes  are listed below.

1)      Nagol

2)      Kasimo

3)      Dachi appa

4)      Ma appa, ba appa

5)      Pha butta jhallar

6)      Phalho appa

7)      Jhallar butta

8)      Nag appa

9)      Mikha fusi

10)  Karnesh

11)  Telia brick

12)  Chikappa

13)  Kachi appa

14)  Tu appa

However in malla period bricks were named as

appa- simplest type of fire brick

 ma appa – telia bricks

 ba appa – decorated bricks

 dachi appa- conical brick

kachi apa –unbaked bricks

 tu appa – brick for round well.

Thick bricks utilized for water conduits and long well brunt brick (58cm x 20cm x 4cm) in covering drainage channel show large application of bricks in Malla period.

Conclusion: -

            From above discussion we can conclude that bricks play a great role in day-to-day usable space that is becoming social object of prime importance in architectural view. Its use ranges from water conduits, drainage covering, and foundation to wall and decorative items.

Lions as Guardians of Monuments in Nepal

Introduction

Human being is the mortal animal but he desires to be immortal. Love, death, terror and fear are the main sources of creation of art and architecture. Men always fear from the death, so they use different safety measures to defense themselves from their enemies. The necessity of protection and care result the inspiration for creation of architecture.

The early civilization of the world shows that the people used great sphinx to protect the tomb and funeral places in Egypt. The use of lion as guardians in the temple, palace and monasteries of Kathmandu valley is not different from the sense adopted in ancient Egyptian civilization. The lion with human face kept on the plinth of Siddhi Laxmi temple of Bhaktapur Durbar Square can be compared to the Sphinx of Egypt.

Such mentality prevails in the architecture on Nepal. Different animal sculpture including lion was used on entrance on Nepalese building such as temples, palaces and monasteries. The palace welcomes visitor with two remarkable lion standing in front of it. The concept is not different to temples and monasteries of Nepal. The lion is used as for symbolism, decoration and protection.

General description

It is well known that Kathmandu valley is rich in its art, religion and culture from ancient times. The Nepalese history and some existing building structure shows that the early major towns of valley were fortified or walled around for defense or protection and four gates at four cardinal direction with a pair of lion guardians on either side of doorway. Powerful animals such as elephant, lion, bull etc. were used as guardians and ritual sites in front of historically and religiously important buildings such as palaces, temples and monasteries. Generally a couple of lion guardians can be perceived on either side of main doorways of such type of buildings excluding some exceptions. Pair of guardians in series can be found in the multiple plinth temples such as Nyatapola temple of Bhaktapur, Shiva Laxmi temple of Bhaktapur etc. The pair of wrestlers of Bhaktapur (namely Jaimal and Patta, followed by the pair of elephants which is again followed by a pair of lions, then by a pair of griffins and finally a pair of deities - Singhini and Baghini can be perceived gradually from lower plinth to upper plinth on Nyatapola temple. They are believed as doorkeepers in charge of paved stairway, which do not allow the evil power to enter into the temple. The statues are kept in such a way that its strength is ten times more than that of previous pair. Hence the wrestlers are said to be ten times powerful than the ordinary citizens and the elephants are ten times powerful than the wrestlers and son on.

Lion posture

Lions can be noticed as guardians in religious buildings in different positions. In Rudrabarna Mahabihar, stone sculpture of lion can be found sitting in hidden position for his victim. In the doorway of Mulchowk of Patan Durbar Square, lion sculpture can be noticed in sitting position. In the four corners of Kalmochan temple of Tripureshwor, lions can be seen in flying position. In some religious buildings, lions can be seen on top of isolated freestanding column.

The lion

As lion is a very powerful animal, it is regarded as the king of the forest in the kingdom of animals. People believe that the powerful lion can protect and defense from different and harmful agents and enemies. The hugeness of its body structure fears the unwanted enemies where as welcomes the friends.

Though lion is not the only animal featured at the temple entrances it is undoubtly the most profusely used. Elephants, griffons, narasinghas(man-lions), camels, rhinoceroses, sphinxes,  etc. can be found in the various temple entrances of the valley. Nobel persons leading a child and a dog is also found in the lohan dega of Bhaktapur.

Generally, lion sculpture used on either side of the entry where one is male and another is female. Such practice can be perceived from initial stage of history. According to Hem Raj Shakya, the lion found in “Akeschheswor Mahavihar” Monastry is the oldest lion sculpture of Patan area.[1]

Lions in detail

Generally, lion sculpture can be found in little raised up platform, which is rounded, buy “nago” in stone detail. Different hairstyle can also be noticed in different places. Hairstyle also tells us about its movement whether it is very angry or not. Such details help to give life to the sculpture. Chained lions can also be seen in some places, for instance the lions at the entrance of Mulchowk of Patan Durbar Square. Psychologically, it was believed that the chain tied the lion to position at its own platform so that it could not escape from that place. More detailing can be performed in metallic lion than in stone ones.

Materials and technology

Stone is excessively used for making lions. In some cases, bronze is used. Construction technology of making lion of stone can be found to be very much advance. Several pieces of stone are used to form a monolith of a lion. Special type of dowel joint is adopted to joint such type of stone pieces. The technology totally depends upon making of the lion sculpture in stone. Highly skilled craftsmen are needed to make such elements. The size and architecture of lion depends upon the importance and size of the building.

The architectural aspect

Lions are ubiquitous element in the Nepalese architecture. It is used as the architectural motif of entrance and elevational treatment of the building. The lion motif can be perceived on the ends of joists on the temples. Lion motif can also be found used as the base plate for the “tham” or wooden pillar. Motifs in bricks can also be found in some religious structure. The open face of the lion gives the look of power. The front façade lion has been one of the specific features on Nepalese architecture. The lion at the front façade also gives the senses of symmetry and balance to the building.

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[1] See reference no. 1, p.30

GREEN ARCHITECTURE

Green architecture is a broad term that refers to the creation or restructuring of buildings so they have a minimal impact on the environment. There are a number of different approaches to green construction, with many of the ideas involving the responsible recycling of existing resources along with the efficient use of environmentally friendly systems to provide water and power services to buildings that are created using a sustainable design; throughout a building's life-cycle: from siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction. Although new technologies are constantly being developed to complement current practices in creating greener structures, the common objective is that green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human health and the natural environment by:  Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources, Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity, Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

There are a number of different approaches to green construction, with many of the ideas involving the responsible recycling of existing resources along with the efficient use of environmentally friendly systems to provide water and power services to buildings that are created using a sustainable design. As more people have become concerned about the wise use of the planet's resources, the concept of green architecture has gained in both acceptability and interest. The building materials may be wood, bricks, or other elements that are harvested from older buildings scheduled for demolition. In recent years, it has been experimented coupling a solar energy system with a wind system has been experimented with, effectively drawing on two renewable resources to create energy to meet the demands of modern life.

Green building often emphasizes taking advantage of renewable resources, e.g., using sunlight through passive solar, active solar, and photovoltaic techniques and using plants and trees through green roofs, rain gardens, and for reduction of rainwater run-off. On the aesthetic side of green architecture or sustainable design is the philosophy of designing a building that is in harmony with the natural features and resources surrounding the site.

SOLAR PASSIVE ARCHITECTURE

Passive, a term frequently used in energy-efficient concepts, basically refers to the architecture in which energy is induced to flow from one living space to another by means of natural principles of heat flow. These techniques manifest themselves best in traditional

dwellings that have withstood the test of time…..in terms of material-use, spatial distribution, construction technology, orientation etc. Solar Passive designs involve methods of collecting, storing, distributing and controlling thermal energy flow by natural means as opposed to the ‘active’ methods of employing mechanical devices to achieve thermal comfort.

Passive solar architecture is energy efficient and sustainable. It minimizes the impact of the building to its immediate environment and efficiently utilizes the on-site energies and available natural resources, thus becoming an influential player of the macroclimatic-system. A building cannot be treated as a mere fuel-guzzling machine but should be regarded as a biological being living in its eco-system. It should breathe in and exhale out, consume and release energy into the environment without causing harm or imbalance in the natural structure of the macro-climate. This can only be attained by implementing techniques that we can learn from the natural world. Man has to obey the laws of nature.

Passive design is simple and involves techniques such as building orientation, direct-indirect heat gain, proper use of materials, colour and texture of building envelope, shading, vegetation etc. By judiciously using scientific design tools relevant to the climatic context one can maintain steady and comfortable conditions within the building environment. This reduces the amount of energy that would otherwise require running active devices to attain similar levels of comfort. At times these simple techniques seem to be ineffective and advanced techniques of passive design need to be incorporated such as trombe wall, solar chimney, roof ponds, wind towers, earth-air tunnel etc.

Rammed Earth systems in the Himalayas, Sun-baked Earth Brick construction in the Kathmandu valley, Wattle and Dough of the terai are standing examples of Passive solar designs. All of these traditional systems characteristic of the different geographic regions of Nepal employ the use of natural materials and heavily rely on building orientation for heat gain. In the Himalayas, dwellings are always constructed on south-facing slopes for heat gain and are closely built to reduce wind flow.  In the valley, thick sun-dried brick walls serve as thermal mass and radiate heat into internal spaces at night-time. The terai huts are built out of locally available materials which are generally by-products of food crops, vegetation is used for shading and evaporative cooling is employed in the internal spaces.

Traditional dwellings generally employ simple techniques of passive solar design and vividly demonstrate the effects these simple tools have in the habitable environment. With necessary amendments these techniques can be used in modern structures to increase their thermal performance.

History of wood construction in Nepal

Since the beginning of the history of art and architecture in Nepal, Nepal has been able to establish a milestone for creating the wood and wooden sculptures that can be still seen in the residents, palaces, temples and even the monuments. Being enriched with the huge forest Nepali architecture has been always based on the wood and wooden construction. Going back to the Aryan, Lichchhavi, Malla, Shah and even the Rana period the use of wood was highly appreciated. The struts, windows, doors, staircase, joists and in many other parts wood was used and highly decorated for showing the pleasing appearance. Even in this modern period of steel and wood is still highly appreciated and vastly used.

The used of wood is not only limited for the constructional purpose but also for furniture. It is well known that the beauty of a house or office or any interior space is highly enhanced by the proper selection of the material within it and it is also a statement of no doubt that wood and wooden furniture have their identical signature that gives the desired pleasing environment within the interior space.

Thus from all the explanations about the wood and the beauty of wooden products, it should be clear that wood factory is highly in use in Nepal. The exact date of initiation of the thing called Factory for the creation of the wooden products in is not clearly known but small cottage industries for making the goods whenever it is required were available in Nepal since Lichchhavi period. The examples can be seen in the art and architecture of that period. Even the structure like bridge was made up of wood at that time. In those periods there was nothing called factory but people who know this art were assigned to make the wooden items. The knowledge was passed generation by generation.

Now coming to this age, with the globalization and industrialization era we have exposed to the modernity and modern way of earning. Thus industries and factories are the products of it. Since the knowledge of wood carving wood furnishing has already been in the mind of the Nepalese, production of the wooden goods has taken its peak level in factories. Nowadays the production of the furnishing material, finishing material and even the decorative material is being done in the industrial level. New machine has been introduced from abroad which increases the rapidity of the work and production of the material. Increasing the employment and export business, the industrilisation has given the golden opportunity.

CASE STUDY

Case study is a careful study of a unit or an object which attempts to determine what factors led to its success or failure.

A case study is one of several ways of doing research with detailed analysis. A written or recorded, detailed analysis of some targeted stress factor(s), for the purpose of noting success or failure to used as a benchmark for education, research, and/or planning. It is a research technique where we can identify the key factors that may affect our design.

Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular matter which involves in-depth studies of specific cases or projects within a program. It includes one or more data collection methods such as interviews, site visit and information through the books or internet.

To obtain a complete picture case study researcher should use a variety of approach and method. Such as:

There are six types of data collected in case studies:

1.      Documents.

2.      Records.

3.      Interviews.

4.      Direct observation.

5.      Participant observation.

6.      Artifacts.

In the field here are the sources that we could do with:

1.      A writer's drafts.

2.      School records of student writers.

3.      Transcripts of interviews with a writer.

4.      Tapes and notes from direct field observations.

5.      Hard copies of a writer's work on computer.

Depending on whether we have chosen to use a single or multi-modal approach for the case study, we can choose to collect data from one or any combination of these sources.

Sustainable development and sustainability

Sustainable development and sustainability influence today's urban planners. Some planners say that modern lifestyles use too many natural resources, polluting or destroying ecosystems, increasing social inequality overheating urban heat islands, and causing climate changes. Many urban planners therefore advocate sustainable cities.

However, sustainable development is a recent, controversial concept. Wheeler, in his 1998 article, defines sustainable urban development to be "development that improves the long-term social and ecological health of cities and towns." He then sketches a 'sustainable' city's features. These include compact, efficient land use, less automobile use yet with better access, efficient resource use, less pollution and waste, the restoration of natural systems, good housing and living environments, a healthy social ecology, a sustainable economy, community participation and involvement and preservation of local culture and wisdom.

As they always have, urban planners try to implement widely accepted social policies and programs. Sustainability must be widely supported by society before planning can realistically modify actual institutions and regions. Real implementations are often complex compromises.